生物化学

The Sox (SRY-related HMG-box) protein family plays a crucial role in cellular differentiation, development, and gene regulation, with the HMG (high-mobility group) domain responsible for DNA binding and transcriptional regulation. Proteins in the SOX gene family contain an HMG domain that shares 50% homology with the HMG domain of the sex-determining factor SRY gene. The SOX gene family comprises 30 proteins, which are classified into 10 groups (A–H). As a member of this family, hSox2 has been shown to be involved in various biological processes, but its specific function remains unclear. Previous studies have used eukaryotic expression systems, GST-tag purification, and bacterial inclusion body refolding techniques to produce Sox family proteins. However, these methods are often limited by issues such as low yield, incorrect folding, or inefficient purification, restricting their application in functional and structural studies. In this study, a prokaryotic expression system for the hSox2-HMG domain was constructed using the pET22b vector and Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) as the host strain. Protein expression was induced by IPTG, and initial purification was performed using Ni-NTA affinity chromatography, followed by ultrafiltration concentration and size exclusion chromatography to improve purity. By optimizing lysis and elution conditions, we successfully obtained hSox2-HMG protein with high expression levels and purity. This method provides a cost-effective and scalable strategy for hSox2-HMG production, ensuring high purity and correct folding of the protein. The optimized experimental protocol lays a foundation for structural and functional studies of hSox2-HMG.

Zinc-finger (ZF) arrays are compact, sequence-specific polynucleotide-binding domains, which have been used to target the delivery of diverse effector domains, enabling applications such as gene identification, localization, regulation, and editing. To facilitate in vitro applications of ZF arrays, we have developed a general method for their expression and purification. Here, we describe a protocol involving two chromatographic steps that yields homogeneous and functional ZF arrays in milligram quantities.

The voltage-gated proton channel (H_v1) is a membrane protein that dissipates acute cell proton accumulations. To understand the molecular mechanisms explaining H_v1 function, methods for purifying the protein are needed. Previously, methods were developed for expressing and purifying human H_v1 (hH_v1) in yeast and later in bacteria. However, these methodologies produced low protein yields and had high production costs, considerably limiting their usefulness. The protocol described in this work was developed to overcome those limitations. hH_v1 is overexpressed in bacteria, solubilized with the detergent Anzergent 3–12, and purified by immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) and size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). Our protocol produced higher protein yields at lower costs than previously published methodologies.

Different research methods aim to clarify the intracellular trafficking of target proteins or unknown pathways. Currently, existing methods are mostly complex and expensive, requiring expert knowledge. Detailed microscopy for protein co-localization detection or omic technologies, which provide holistic network data, are elaborate, mostly complex, and expensive to apply. Our protocol illustrates a method to track a target protein by detecting expression changes of user-selected marker proteins that directly or indirectly interact with the target. Modulation of protein expression indicates interactions between the target and marker protein. Even without co-localization analysis, the results of the protein expression change are the first insights into the target's fate. Moreover, the use of the cell-sonar is straightforward and affordable, and the results are rapidly available. Furthermore, this method could also be used to determine if and how pathways are affected by compounds added to the cells. In conclusion, our method is adaptable to a wide range of proteins, easy to apply, inexpensive, and expandable with substances that affect proteins.

Generating protein conjugates using the bioorthogonal ligation between tetrazines and trans-cyclooctene groups avoids the need to manipulate cysteine amino acids; this ligation is rapid, site-specific, and stoichiometric and allows for labeling of proteins in complex biological environments. Here, we provide a protocol for the expression of conjugation-ready proteins at high yields in Escherichia coli with greater than 95% encoding and labeling fidelity. This protocol focuses on installing the Tet2 tetrazine amino acid using an optimized genetic code expansion (GCE) machinery system, Tet2 pAJE-E7, to direct Tet2 encoding at TAG stop codons in BL21 E. coli strains, enabling reproducible expression of Tet2-proteins that quantitatively react with trans-cyclooctene (TCO) groups within 5 min at room temperature and physiological pH. The use of the BL21 derivative B95(DE3) minimizes premature truncation byproducts caused by incomplete suppression of TAG stop codons, which makes it possible to use more diverse protein construct designs. Here, using a superfolder green fluorescent protein construct as an example protein, we describe in detail a four-day process for encoding Tet2 with yields of ~200 mg per liter of culture. Additionally, a simple and fast diagnostic gel electrophoretic mobility shift assay is described to confirm Tet2-Et encoding and reactivity. Finally, strategies are discussed to adapt the protocol to alternative proteins of interest and optimize expression yields and reactivity for that protein.

Efficient and nontoxic delivery of foreign cargo into cells is a critical step in many biological studies and cell engineering workflows with applications in areas such as biomanufacturing and cell-based therapeutics. However, effective molecular delivery into cells involves optimizing several experimental parameters. In the case of electroporation-based intracellular delivery, there is a need to optimize parameters like pulse voltage, duration, buffer type, and cargo concentration for each unique application. Here, we present the protocol for fabricating and utilizing a high-throughput multi-well localized electroporation device (LEPD) assisted by deep learning–based image analysis to enable rapid optimization of experimental parameters for efficient and nontoxic molecular delivery into cells. The LEPD and the optimization workflow presented herein are relevant to both adherent and suspended cell types and different molecular cargo (DNA, RNA, and proteins). The workflow enables multiplexed combinatorial experiments and can be adapted to cell engineering applications requiring in vitro delivery.

Agrobacterium-mediated transient gene expression in Nicotiana benthamiana is widely used to study gene function in plants. One dramatic phenotype that is frequently screened for is cell death. Here, we present a simplified protocol for Agrobacterium-mediated transient gene expression by infiltration. Compared with current methods, the novel protocol can be done without a centrifuge or spectrometer, thereby suitable for K-12 outreach programs as well as rapidly identifying genes that induce cell death.

Contractile injection systems (CISs), one of the most important bacterial secretion systems that transport substrates across the membrane, are a collection of diverse but evolutionarily related macromolecular devices. Numerous effector proteins can be loaded and injected by this secretion complex to their specific destinations. One group of CISs called extracellular CIS (eCIS) has been proposed as secretory molecules that can be released from the bacterial cytoplasm and attack neighboring target cells from the extracellular environment. This makes them a potential delivery vector for the transportation of various cargos without the inclusion of bacterial cells, which might elicit certain immunological responses from hosts. We have demonstrated that the Photorhabdus virulence cassette (PVC), which is a typical eCIS, could be applied as an ideal vector for the translocation of proteinaceous cargos with different physical or chemical properties. Here, we describe the in-depth purification protocol of this mega complex from Escherichia coli. The protocol provided is a simpler, faster, and more productive way of generating the eCIS complexes than available methodologies reported previously, which can facilitate the subsequent applications of these nanodevices and other eCIS in different backgrounds.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an extensively used technique to quickly and accurately make many copies of a specific segment of DNA. In addition to naturally existing DNA polymerases, PCR utilizes a range of genetically modified recombinant DNA polymerases, each characterized by varying levels of processivity and fidelity. Pfu-Sso7d, a fusion DNA polymerase, is obtained by the fusion of Sso7d, a small DNA-binding protein, with Pfu DNA polymerase. Pfu-Sso7d is known for its high processivity, efficiency, and fidelity but is sold at a sumptuously high price under various trade names and commercial variants. We recently reported a quick and easy purification protocol that utilizes ethanol or acetone to precipitate Pfu-Sso7d from heat-cleared lysates. We also optimized a PCR buffer solution that outperforms commercial buffers when used with Pfu-Sso7d. Here, we provide a step-by-step guide on how to purify recombinant Pfu-Sso7d. This purification protocol and the buffer system will offer researchers cost-efficient access to fusion polymerase.

Key features

• We detail a precipitation-based protocol utilizing ethanol and acetone for purifying Pfu-Sso7d.

• Despite ethanol and acetone displaying effective precipitation efficiency, acetone is preferred for its superior performance.

• Furthermore, we present a PCR buffer that outperforms commercially available PCR buffers.

• The Pfu-Sso7d purified in-house and the described PCR buffer exhibit excellent performance in PCR applications.

Nanobodies are recombinant antigen-specific single domain antibodies (VHHs) derived from the heavy chain–only subset of camelid immunoglobulins. Their small molecular size, facile expression, high affinity, and stability have combined to make them unique targeting reagents with numerous applications in the biomedical sciences. From our work in producing nanobodies to over sixty different proteins, we present a standardised workflow for nanobody discovery from llama immunisation, library building, panning, and small-scale expression for prioritisation of binding clones. In addition, we introduce our suites of mammalian and bacterial vectors, which can be used to functionalise selected nanobodies for various applications such as in imaging and purification.

Key features

• Standardise the process of building nanobody libraries and finding nanobody binders so that it can be repeated in any lab with reasonable equipment.

• Introduce two suites of vectors to functionalise nanobodies for production in either bacterial or mammalian cells.

Graphical overview